Spanish warships
1588
Philip II creates a huge fleet (the Armada) to subdue the English allies of the rebellious Dutch. However, most of the ships sink off the coast of the British Isles, and Maurice, son of the late William of Orange (assassinated in 1584), forces the Spanish land armies onto the defensive. By this time, the States General have assumed sovereignty (in 1581) and established the Republic of the United Provinces, a unique political construct with no monarch and with an official called the grand pensionary at its head. The first grand pensionary, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, is condemned to death in 1619 despite his major role in the establishment of the Republic.